Reformer, Victor, Leader: Menelik II of Ethiopia
History has taught us many things: never invade Russia in the winter, never fight a Gurkha, or never, never steal North Korean propaganda posters, for instance.
One addendum to this list could very well be to never underestimate Ethiopia. Militarily, as well as culturally, Ethiopia is a goldmine of astounding history. From the country that brought history so much, it may appear hard to focus on one of its many leaders. The man who takes the cake, however, would have to be Emperor Menelik II. Menelik, a reformer and man of curiosity, led Ethiopia from 1889-1913.
Although not instantly apparent, Ethiopia has always stood out on the African continent. Where other regions and states were polytheistic, Ethiopia was a devout Coptic Christian nation (Menelik described it as “a Christian island in a sea of pagans.”). Where other peoples were loosely united in stateless societies, Ethiopia had been ruled by Emperors of its Solomonic Dynasty for over 900 years by the time of Menelik’s coronation. Ethiopia, in fact, still is ruled by a Solomonic Emperor, Zera Yacob Amha Selassie, who took the throne in 1997. Additionally, Ethiopia was one of the few countries that could resist the rapacious wind of imperialism that blew through Africa in the latter half of the 19th century. In this way, Menelik II exemplifies the perfect Ethiopian: exceedingly brilliant, punctiliously Christian, and patriotic to the core.
When his predecessor, Yohannes IV, died at the Battle of Gallabat, Menelik was not immediately in line for the throne. King of Shewa, a historical region of Ethiopia, Menelik had already made his mark on the Ethiopian political scene. Through brilliant and careful diplomacy, coupled with tactful deceit, Menelik sewed doubts in his rival’s claims to the throne and was able to gain approval from many nobles. Coronated in 1889, Menelik immediately got to work doing what he already had as King of Shewa.
A man of economics, Menelik was observed by many Italian explorers as “very friendly, and a fanatic for weapons, about whose mechanism he appears to be most intelligent,” with others adding, “he had the curiosity of a boy; the least thing made an impression upon him ... He showed ... great intelligence and great mechanical ability.” In the same way that he had won the approval of the noble class to gain power, Menelik cultivated his base of support carefully and thoroughly. He established relations with French and Italian emissaries and gained the respect of his people by maintaining his kind, receptive demeanor.
Before his time, Ethiopia’s capital was nomadic—it would have been wherever the Emperor’s tent was. Under the influence of his third wife, though, Menelik established Addis Ababa as his empire’s permanent capital. It served as a symbol of his growing sphere of influence and blooming empire: Addis Ababa means “new flower” in Amharic.
Menelik was obsessed with his military and missed few chances to reform and modernize it. His control over Ethiopia was firm, though there were a few dissenters, and he played an undeniably central role in expanding Ethiopia’s borders to where they stand today. Menelik was advised by multiple Russian adventurers, including Nikolai Gumilyov and Alexander Bulatovich, who helped him conquer new lands. His royal doctor, Paul Merab, was a Georgian who established the first pharmacy in Addis Ababa. He connected Addis Ababa to other African cities, such as the French port of Djibouti, by rail, another new invention that he brought to Ethiopia. He established a national bank, postal service, plumbing projects, and even attempted (unsuccessfully) to change Ethiopia’s currency from the Maria Theresa Thaler.
Menelik desired a modernized empire so much that he was rumored to have ordered three electric chairs for Ethiopia. Upon their arrival, though, Menelik realized they would not work, as Ethiopia had no electricity at the time. Rather than waste his money, though, and throw out his investment, he is supposed to have instead repurposed the electric chairs as thrones for himself and other high-ranking royalty.
Menelik II, despite being known today as a charitable and kind ruler, who made himself readily available for his subjects, is most famous for his defeat of Italian invaders at the Battle of Adwa (alternatively spelled Adowa). After being confronted by Italians, who had colonized much of modern-day Eritrea, Menelik signed the Treaty of Wuchale, printed both in Italian and Amharic. The Italian version, though, was much less favorable for Menelik. The Italians thought they had tricked Menelik into giving them some of his territory, but Menelik was told of the unfair translation, and he rejected the treaty. The Italians, led by General Oreste Baratieri, declared war on December 15th, 1894.
Menelik was resolute that “This country is mine and no other nation can have it,” noting that “There was never a time when united that Ethiopians lost to an enemy in history.” After two long years of bloody conflict, Menelik met the beleaguered Italian forces at the decisive Battle of Adwa on March 1st, 1896. Baratieri, toting 56 mountain cannons and roughly 15,000 men, planned to surprise the 80,000-strong Ethiopian force early in the morning.
But, expectedly, the devout Ethiopians were up early for church services, and saw the Italian advance coming. It is amusing and fitting that the devotion of the Ethiopians was one of the factors that fought for their independence—if the Ethiopians were not awake for church services, they could well have been decimated by the Italians. His soldiers were poorly armed, and those that had guns used Russian Mosin-Nagant rifles, while the rest wielded swords and spears. Despite the feudal and unsophisticated nature of his army, Menelik’s superior planning and determination crushed the Italians. Menelik’s advisors, including Russian artillery officer Nikolai Leontiev, knew that Menelik’s forces outnumbered the Italians—it was imperative, then, that they minimize Italian fire superiority by way of prolonged, face-to-face contact with the enemy. From atop a nearby hill, Menelik watched his forces destroy the Italians with the calm of a poker player. Menelik proved to be a master of keeping his cards close to his vest—just as Menelik’s forces looked like they were about to finish off the Italians, he unleashed an onslaught of 25,000 reserves, consummating his victory, and defended Ethiopia’s sovereignty.
Menelik’s victory at Adwa was legendary; it remains one of the most important battles ever fought on African soil. Menelik commented that “When united, the victory is ours as many small pieces of bark can conquer an elephant.” Menelik’s victory at the Battle of Adwa preempted the 1896 Treaty of Addis Ababa, which solidified Ethiopian sovereignty. As a gift for his victories, Russia sent Menelik a plethora of military aid. Menelik restored national pride and united his people. A master of diplomacy, he used European influence, ironically, to help defeat the spread of colonialism. The Russian role played in Menelik’s victory at Adwa is undeniable.
For such a beloved man and legendary ruler, Menelik is said to have died in an unfortunately funny way. According to some reports, Menelik was so devout he would eat pages of Christian scripture when he was sick—he believed it was some sort of magical healing agent. One day, when he felt particularly ill, he was rumored to have eaten the entire Book of Kings, giving him a stroke that would ultimately prove to be fatal. Menelik II of Ethiopia died in November of 1913 a heroic figure, defier of colonization, westernizer, reformer, soldier-king, and philanthropist. His influence on his people and country is still felt today.
